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<title>Inference</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Inference</span></span>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the 1992 album by pianist Marilyn Crispell and saxophonist Tim Berne, see <a href="Inference_(album)" title="Inference (album)"><i>Inference</i> (album)</a>. For the process in statistics and machine learning, see <a href="Statistical_inference" title="Statistical inference">Statistical inference</a>.</div>

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</p><p><b>Inferences</b> are steps in <a href="Logical_reasoning" title="Logical reasoning">logical reasoning</a>, moving from <a href="Premise" title="Premise">premises</a> to <a href="Logical_consequence" title="Logical consequence">logical consequences</a>; etymologically, the word <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/infer" class="extiw external" title="wikt:infer">infer</a></i> means to "carry forward". Inference is theoretically traditionally divided into <a href="Deductive_reasoning" title="Deductive reasoning">deduction</a> and <a href="Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">induction</a>, a distinction that in Europe dates at least to <a href="Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (300s BC). Deduction is inference <a href="Formal_proof" title="Formal proof">deriving</a> <a href="Logical_consequence" title="Logical consequence">logical conclusions</a> from premises known or assumed to be <a href="Truth" title="Truth">true</a>, with the <a href="Rule_of_inference" title="Rule of inference">laws of valid inference</a> being studied in <a href="Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>. Induction is inference from <a href="Particular" title="Particular">particular</a> evidence to a <a href="Universal_(metaphysics)" title="Universal (metaphysics)">universal</a> conclusion. A third type of inference is sometimes distinguished, notably by <a href="Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a>, contradistinguishing <a href="Abductive_reasoning" title="Abductive reasoning">abduction</a> from induction.

</p><p>Various fields study how inference is done in practice. Human inference (i.e. how humans draw conclusions) is traditionally studied within the fields of logic, argumentation studies, and <a href="Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">cognitive psychology</a>; <a href="Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</a> researchers develop automated inference systems to emulate human inference. <a href="Statistical_inference" title="Statistical inference">Statistical inference</a> uses mathematics to draw conclusions in the presence of uncertainty. This generalizes deterministic reasoning, with the absence of uncertainty as a special case. Statistical inference uses quantitative or qualitative (<a href="Categorical_data" class="mw-redirect" title="Categorical data">categorical</a>) data which may be subject to random variations.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2></div>

<p>The process by which a conclusion is inferred from multiple <a href="Observations" class="mw-redirect" title="Observations">observations</a> is called <a href="Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">inductive reasoning</a>. The conclusion may be correct or incorrect, or correct to within a certain degree of accuracy, or correct in certain situations. Conclusions inferred from multiple observations may be tested by additional observations.

</p><p>This definition is disputable (due to its lack of clarity. Ref: Oxford English dictionary: "induction ... 3. Logic the inference of a general law from particular instances." ) The definition given thus applies only when the "conclusion" is general.

</p><p>Two possible definitions of "inference" are:

</p>

<ol><li>A conclusion reached on the basis of evidence and reasoning.</li>

<li>The process of reaching such a conclusion.</li></ol>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples">Examples</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Example_for_definition_#1">Example for definition #1</h3></div>

<p><a href="Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient Greek philosophers</a> defined a number of <a href="Syllogism" title="Syllogism">syllogisms</a>, correct three part inferences, that can be used as building blocks for more complex reasoning. We begin with a famous example:

</p>

<ol><li>All humans are mortal.</li>

<li>All Greeks are humans.</li>

<li>All Greeks are mortal.</li></ol>

<p>The reader can check that the premises and conclusion are true, but logic is concerned with inference: does the truth of the conclusion follow from that of the premises?

</p><p>The validity of an inference depends on the form of the inference. That is, the word "valid" does not refer to the truth of the premises or the conclusion, but rather to the form of the inference. An inference can be valid even if the parts are false, and can be invalid even if some parts are true. But a valid form with true premises will always have a true conclusion.

</p><p>For example, consider the form of the following <a href="Symbology" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbology">symbological</a> track:

</p>

<ol><li>All meat comes from animals.</li>

<li>Therefore, all beef comes from animals.</li></ol>

<p>If the premises are true, then the conclusion is necessarily true, too.

</p><p>Now we turn to an invalid form.

</p>

<li>Therefore, all C are A.</li></ol>

<p>To show that this form is invalid, we demonstrate how it can lead from true premises to a false conclusion.

</p>

<ol><li>All apples are fruit. (True)</li>

<li>All bananas are fruit. (True)</li>

<li>Therefore, all bananas are apples. (False)</li></ol>

<p>A valid argument with a false premise may lead to a false conclusion, (this and the following examples do not follow the Greek syllogism):

</p>

<ol><li>All tall people are French. (False)</li>

<li>John Lennon was tall. (True)</li>

<li>Therefore, John Lennon was French. (False)</li></ol>

<p>When a valid argument is used to derive a false conclusion from a false premise, the inference is valid because it follows the form of a correct inference.

</p><p>A valid argument can also be used to derive a true conclusion from a false premise:

</p>

<ol><li>All tall people are musicians. (Valid, False)</li>

<li>John Lennon was tall. (Valid, True)</li>

<li>Therefore, John Lennon was a musician. (Valid, True)</li></ol>

<p>In this case we have one false premise and one true premise where a true conclusion has been inferred.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Example_for_definition_#2">Example for definition #2</h3></div>

<p>Evidence: It is the early 1950s and you are an American stationed in the <a href="Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>. You read in the <a href="Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a> newspaper that a <a href="Soccer" class="mw-redirect" title="Soccer">soccer</a> team from a small city in <a href="Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a> starts winning game after game. The team even defeats the Moscow team. Inference: The small city in Siberia is not a small city anymore. The Soviets are working on their own nuclear or high-value secret weapons program.

</p><p>Knowns: The Soviet Union is a <a href="Command_economy" class="mw-redirect" title="Command economy">command economy</a>: people and material are told where to go and what to do. The small city was remote and historically had never distinguished itself; its soccer season was typically short because of the weather.

</p><p>Explanation: In a <a href="Command_economy" class="mw-redirect" title="Command economy">command economy</a>, people and material are moved where they are needed. Large cities might field good teams due to the greater availability of high quality players; and teams that can practice longer (possibly due to sunnier weather and better facilities) can reasonably be expected to be better. In addition, you put your best and brightest in places where they can do the most good—such as on high-value weapons programs. It is an anomaly for a small city to field such a good team. The anomaly indirectly described a condition by which the observer inferred a new meaningful pattern—that the small city was no longer small. Why would you put a large city of your best and brightest in the middle of nowhere? To hide them, of course.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Incorrect_inference">Incorrect inference</h2></div>

<p>An incorrect inference is known as a <a href="Fallacy" title="Fallacy">fallacy</a>. Philosophers who study <a href="Informal_logic" title="Informal logic">informal logic</a> have compiled large lists of them, and cognitive psychologists have documented many <a href="Cognitive_bias" title="Cognitive bias">biases in human reasoning</a> that favor incorrect reasoning.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Inference_engines">Inference engines</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="Reasoning_system" title="Reasoning system">Reasoning system</a>, <a href="Inference_engine" title="Inference engine">Inference engine</a>, <a href="Expert_system" title="Expert system">expert system</a>, and <a href="Business_rule_engine" class="mw-redirect" title="Business rule engine">business rule engine</a></div>

<p>AI systems first provided automated logical inference and these were once extremely popular research topics, leading to industrial applications under the form of <a href="Expert_system" title="Expert system">expert systems</a> and later <a href="Business_rule_engine" class="mw-redirect" title="Business rule engine">business rule engines</a>. More recent work on <a href="Automated_theorem_proving" title="Automated theorem proving">automated theorem proving</a> has had a stronger

basis in formal logic.

</p><p>An inference system's job is to extend a knowledge base automatically. The <a href="Knowledge_base" title="Knowledge base">knowledge base</a> (KB) is a set of propositions that represent what the system knows about the world. Several techniques can be used by that system to extend KB by means of valid inferences. An additional requirement is that the conclusions the system arrives at are <a href="Relevance" title="Relevance">relevant</a> to its task.

</p><p>Additionally, the term 'inference' has also been applied to the process of generating predictions from trained <a href="Artificial_neural_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial neural network">neural networks</a>. In this context, an 'inference engine' refers to the system or hardware performing these operations. This type of inference is widely used in applications ranging from <a href="Image_recognition" class="mw-redirect" title="Image recognition">image recognition</a> to <a href="Natural_language_processing" title="Natural language processing">natural language processing</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Prolog_engine">Prolog engine</h4></div>

<p><a href="Prolog" title="Prolog">Prolog</a> (for "Programming in Logic") is a <a href="Programming_language" title="Programming language">programming language</a> based on a <a href="Subset" title="Subset">subset</a> of <a href="Predicate_calculus" class="mw-redirect" title="Predicate calculus">predicate calculus</a>. Its main job is to check whether a certain proposition can be inferred from a KB (knowledge base) using an algorithm called <a href="Backward_chaining" title="Backward chaining">backward chaining</a>.

</p><p>Let us return to our <a href="Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a> <a href="Syllogism" title="Syllogism">syllogism</a>. We enter into our Knowledge Base the following piece of code:

</p>

<pre>mortal(X) :- man(X).

man(socrates).

</pre>

<p>( Here <i><b>:-</b></i> can be read as "if". Generally, if <i>P <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \to }">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \to }</annotation>

</semantics>

</math></span><img src="./1daab843254cfcb23a643070cf93f3badc4fbbbd.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.324ex; height:1.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \to }" loading="lazy"></span> Q</i> (if P then Q) then in Prolog we would code <i>Q<b>:-</b>P</i> (Q if P).)<br>

This states that all men are mortal and that Socrates is a man. Now we can ask the Prolog system about Socrates:

</p>

<pre>?- mortal(socrates).

</pre>

<p>(where <i>?-</i> signifies a query: Can <i>mortal(socrates).</i> be deduced from the KB using the rules)

gives the answer "Yes".

</p><p>On the other hand, asking the Prolog system the following:

</p>

<pre>?- mortal(plato).

</pre>

<p>gives the answer "No".

</p><p>This is because <a href="Prolog" title="Prolog">Prolog</a> does not know anything about <a href="Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>, and hence defaults to any property about Plato being false (the so-called <a href="Closed_world_assumption" class="mw-redirect" title="Closed world assumption">closed world assumption</a>). Finally

?- mortal(X) (Is anything mortal) would result in "Yes" (and in some implementations: "Yes": X=socrates)<br>

<a href="Prolog" title="Prolog">Prolog</a> can be used for vastly more complicated inference tasks. See the corresponding article for further examples.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Semantic_web">Semantic web</h3></div>

<p>Recently automatic reasoners found in <a href="Semantic_web" class="mw-redirect" title="Semantic web">semantic web</a> a new field of application. Being based upon <a href="Description_logic" title="Description logic">description logic</a>, knowledge expressed using one variant of <a href="Web_Ontology_Language" title="Web Ontology Language">OWL</a> can be logically processed, i.e., inferences can be made upon it.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bayesian_statistics_and_probability_logic">Bayesian statistics and probability logic</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Bayesian_inference" title="Bayesian inference">Bayesian inference</a></div>

<p>Philosophers and scientists who follow the <a href="Bayesian_inference" title="Bayesian inference">Bayesian framework</a> for inference use the mathematical rules of <a href="Probability" title="Probability">probability</a> to find this best explanation. The Bayesian view has a number of desirable features—one of them is that it embeds deductive (certain) logic as a subset (this prompts some writers to call Bayesian probability "probability logic", following <a href="E._T._Jaynes" class="mw-redirect" title="E. T. Jaynes">E. T. Jaynes</a>).

</p><p>Bayesians identify probabilities with degrees of beliefs, with certainly true propositions having probability 1, and certainly false propositions having probability 0. To say that "it's going to rain tomorrow" has a 0.9 probability is to say that you consider the possibility of rain tomorrow as extremely likely.

</p><p>Through the rules of probability, the probability of a conclusion and of alternatives can be calculated. The best explanation is most often identified with the most probable (see <a href="Bayesian_decision_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Bayesian decision theory">Bayesian decision theory</a>). A central rule of Bayesian inference is <a href="Bayes'_theorem" title="Bayes' theorem">Bayes' theorem</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fuzzy_logic">Fuzzy logic</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Fuzzy_logic" title="Fuzzy logic">Fuzzy logic</a></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non-monotonic_logic">Non-monotonic logic</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Non-monotonic_logic" title="Non-monotonic logic">Non-monotonic logic</a></div><p><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>A relation of inference is <a href="Monotonicity_of_entailment" title="Monotonicity of entailment">monotonic</a> if the addition of premises does not undermine previously reached conclusions; otherwise the relation is <a href="Nonmonotonic_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonmonotonic logic">non-monotonic</a>.

Deductive inference is monotonic: if a conclusion is reached on the basis of a certain set of premises, then that conclusion still holds if more premises are added.

</p><p>By contrast, everyday reasoning is mostly non-monotonic because it involves risk: we jump to conclusions from deductively insufficient premises.

We know when it is worth or even necessary (e.g. in medical diagnosis) to take the risk. Yet we are also aware that such inference is defeasible—that new information may undermine old conclusions. Various kinds of defeasible but remarkably successful inference have traditionally captured the attention of philosophers (theories of induction, Peirce's theory of <a href="Abductive_reasoning" title="Abductive reasoning">abduction</a>, inference to the best explanation, etc.). More recently logicians have begun to approach the phenomenon from a formal point of view. The result is a large body of theories at the interface of philosophy, logic and artificial intelligence.

</p>

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<ul><li><a href="A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A priori</i> and <i>a posteriori</i></a> – Two types of knowledge, justification, or argument</li>

<li><a href="Abductive_reasoning" title="Abductive reasoning">Abductive reasoning</a> – Inference seeking the simplest and most likely explanation</li>

<li><a href="Deductive_reasoning" title="Deductive reasoning">Deductive reasoning</a> – Form of reasoning</li>

<li><a href="Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Inductive reasoning</a> – Method of logical reasoning</li>

<li><a href="Entailment" class="mw-redirect" title="Entailment">Entailment</a> – Relationship where one statement follows from another<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li>

<li><a href="Epilogism" title="Epilogism">Epilogism</a></li>

<li><a href="Analogy" title="Analogy">Analogy</a> – Cognitive process of transferring information or meaning from a particular subject to another</li>

<li><a href="Axiom_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiom system">Axiom system</a> – Mathematical term; concerning axioms used to derive theorems<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span>

<ul><li><a href="Axiom" title="Axiom">Axiom</a> – Statement that is taken to be true</li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Immediate_inference" title="Immediate inference">Immediate inference</a> – Logical inference from a single statement</li>

<li><a href="Inferential_programming" title="Inferential programming">Inferential programming</a></li>

<li><a href="Inquiry" title="Inquiry">Inquiry</a> – Any process that has the aim of augmenting knowledge, resolving doubt, or solving a problem</li>

<li><a href="Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a> – Study of correct reasoning</li>

<li><a href="Logic_of_information" title="Logic of information">Logic of information</a></li>

<li><a href="Logical_assertion" class="mw-redirect" title="Logical assertion">Logical assertion</a> – Statement in a metalanguage<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li>

<li><a href="Logical_graph" class="mw-redirect" title="Logical graph">Logical graph</a> – Type of diagrammatic notation for propositional logic<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li>

<li><a href="Rule_of_inference" title="Rule of inference">Rule of inference</a> – Method of deriving conclusions</li>

<li><a href="List_of_rules_of_inference" title="List of rules of inference">List of rules of inference</a></li>

<li><a href="Theorem" title="Theorem">Theorem</a> – In mathematics, a statement that has been proven</li>

<li><a href="Transduction_(machine_learning)" title="Transduction (machine learning)">Transduction (machine learning)</a> – Type of statistical inference</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</style><cite id="Fuhrmann,_Nonmonotonic_Logic" class="citation book cs1">Fuhrmann, André. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20031209221248/http://www.uni-konstanz.de/FuF/Philo/Philosophie/Fuhrmann/papers/nomoLog.pdf"><i>Nonmonotonic Logic</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uni-konstanz.de/FuF/Philo/Philosophie/Fuhrmann/papers/nomoLog.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 9 December 2003.</cite></span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

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</style><div class="refbegin" style="">

<ul><li><cite id="Hacking,_2001" class="citation book cs1">Hacking, Ian (2001). <i>An Introduction to Probability and Inductive Logic</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-521-77501-4</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="Jaynes,_2003" class="citation book cs1">Jaynes, Edwin Thompson (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20041011085524/http://titles.cambridge.org/catalogue.asp?isbn=0521592712"><i>Probability Theory: The Logic of Science</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-521-59271-0</bdi>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://titles.cambridge.org/catalogue.asp?isbn=0521592712">the original</a> on 11 October 2004<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 November</span> 2004</span>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="McKay,_2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="David_J._C._MacKay" title="David J. C. MacKay">McKay, David J.C.</a> (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.inference.phy.cam.ac.uk/mackay/itila/book.html"><i>Information Theory, Inference, and Learning Algorithms</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-521-64298-9</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFRussellNorvig2003" class="citation cs2"><a href="Stuart_J._Russell" title="Stuart J. Russell">Russell, Stuart J.</a>; <a href="Peter_Norvig" title="Peter Norvig">Norvig, Peter</a> (2003), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aima.cs.berkeley.edu/"><i>Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach</i></a> (2nd ed.), Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-13-790395-2</bdi></cite></li>

<li><cite id="Tijms,_2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Henk_Tijms" title="Henk Tijms">Tijms, Henk</a> (2004). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/understandingpro0000tijm"><i>Understanding Probability</i></a></span>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-521-70172-3</bdi>.</cite></li></ul>

</div>

<p><b>Inductive inference:</b>

</p>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFCarnapJeffrey1971" class="citation book cs1">Carnap, Rudolf; Jeffrey, Richard C., eds. (1971). <i>Studies in Inductive Logic and Probability</i>. Vol. 1. The University of California Press.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFJeffrey1980" class="citation book cs1">Jeffrey, Richard C., ed. (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Qfe0SEazn3oC"><i>Studies in Inductive Logic and Probability</i></a>. Vol. 2. The University of California Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780520038264</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFAngluin1976" class="citation thesis cs1">Angluin, Dana (1976). <i>An Application of the Theory of Computational Complexity to the Study of Inductive Inference</i> (Ph.D.). University of California at Berkeley.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFAngluin1980" class="citation journal cs1">Angluin, Dana (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs0019-9958%2880%2990285-5">"Inductive Inference of Formal Languages from Positive Data"</a>. <i>Information and Control</i>. <b>45</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">117–</span>135. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs0019-9958%2880%2990285-5">10.1016/s0019-9958(80)90285-5</a></span>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFAngluinSmith1983" class="citation journal cs1">Angluin, Dana; Smith, Carl H. (September 1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://users.dsic.upv.es/asignaturas/facultad/apr/AngluinSmith83.pdf">"Inductive Inference: Theory and Methods"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Computing Surveys</i>. <b>15</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">237–</span>269. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F356914.356918">10.1145/356914.356918</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:3209224">3209224</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFGabbayHartmannWoods2009" class="citation book cs1">Gabbay, Dov M.; Hartmann, Stephan; Woods, John, eds. (2009). <i>Inductive Logic</i>. Handbook of the History of Logic. Vol. 10. Elsevier. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-444-52936-7</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFGoodman1983" class="citation book cs1">Goodman, Nelson (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=i97_LdPXwrAC"><i>Fact, Fiction, and Forecast</i></a>. Harvard University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780674290716</bdi>.</cite></li></ul>

<p><b>Abductive inference:</b>

</p>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFO'RourkeJosephson1997" class="citation book cs1">O'Rourke, P.; Josephson, J., eds. (1997). <i>Automated abduction: Inference to the best explanation</i>. AAAI Press.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFPsillos2009" class="citation book cs1">Psillos, Stathis (2009). "An Explorer upon Untrodden Ground". In Gabbay, Dov M.; Hartmann, Stephan; Woods, John (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://users.uoa.gr/~psillos/PapersI/11-Peirce-Abduction.pdf"><i>An Explorer upon Untrodden Ground: Peirce on Abduction</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Handbook of the History of Logic. Vol. 10. Elsevier. pp. <span class="nowrap">117–</span>152. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-444-52936-7.50004-5">10.1016/B978-0-444-52936-7.50004-5</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-444-52936-7</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFRay2005" class="citation thesis cs1">Ray, Oliver (December 2005). <i>Hybrid Abductive Inductive Learning</i> (Ph.D.). University of London, Imperial College. <a href="CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.66.1877">10.1.1.66.1877</a></span>.</cite></li></ul>

<p><b>Psychological investigations about human reasoning:</b>

</p>

<ul><li><b>deductive:</b>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFJohnson-LairdByrne1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Philip_Johnson-Laird" title="Philip Johnson-Laird">Johnson-Laird, Philip Nicholas</a>; Byrne, Ruth M. J. (1992). <i>Deduction</i>. Erlbaum.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFByrneJohnson-Laird2009" class="citation journal cs1">Byrne, Ruth M. J.; <a href="Philip_Johnson-Laird" title="Philip Johnson-Laird">Johnson-Laird, P. N.</a> (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140407061602/https://psych.princeton.edu/psychology/research/johnson_laird/pdfs/2009ifandtheproblemof.pdf">""If" and the Problems of Conditional Reasoning"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Trends in Cognitive Sciences</i>. <b>13</b> (7): <span class="nowrap">282–</span>287. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tics.2009.04.003">10.1016/j.tics.2009.04.003</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19540792">19540792</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:657803">657803</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://psych.princeton.edu/psychology/research/johnson_laird/pdfs/2009ifandtheproblemof.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 7 April 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 August</span> 2013</span>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFKnauffFangmeierRuffJohnson-Laird2003" class="citation journal cs1">Knauff, Markus; Fangmeier, Thomas; Ruff, Christian C.; <a href="Philip_Johnson-Laird" title="Philip Johnson-Laird">Johnson-Laird, P. N.</a> (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150518094338/http://www.uni-giessen.de/cms/fbz/fb06/psychologie/abt/kognition/dateien/kfrjl_JOCN.pdf">"Reasoning, Models, and Images: Behavioral Measures and Cortical Activity"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience</i>. <b>15</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">559–</span>573. <a href="CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.318.6615">10.1.1.318.6615</a></span>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1162%2F089892903321662949">10.1162/089892903321662949</a>. <a href="Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/11858%2F00-001M-0000-0013-DC8B-C">11858/00-001M-0000-0013-DC8B-C</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12803967">12803967</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:782228">782228</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uni-giessen.de/cms/fbz/fb06/psychologie/abt/kognition/dateien/kfrjl_JOCN.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 18 May 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 August</span> 2013</span>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFJohnson-Laird1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Philip_Johnson-Laird" title="Philip Johnson-Laird">Johnson-Laird, Philip N.</a> (1995). Gazzaniga, M. S. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nbu.bg/cogs/events/2002/materials/Markus/mental_models.pdf"><i>Mental Models, Deductive Reasoning, and the Brain</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. MIT Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">999–</span>1008.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFKhemlaniJohnson-Laird2008" class="citation book cs1">Khemlani, Sangeet; <a href="Philip_Johnson-Laird" title="Philip Johnson-Laird">Johnson-Laird, P. N.</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mentalmodels.princeton.edu/papers/2008disjillusions.pdf">"Illusory Inferences about Embedded Disjunctions"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Proceedings of the 30th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society. Washington/DC</i>. pp. <span class="nowrap">2128–</span>2133.</cite></li></ul></li>

<li><b>statistical:</b>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFMcCloyByrneJohnson-Laird2009" class="citation journal cs1">McCloy, Rachel; Byrne, Ruth M. J.; <a href="Philip_Johnson-Laird" title="Philip Johnson-Laird">Johnson-Laird, Philip N.</a> (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150518073242/http://psych.princeton.edu/psychology/research/johnson_laird/pdfs/2009%20Understanding%20cumulative%20risk.pdf">"Understanding Cumulative Risk"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology</i>. <b>63</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">499–</span>515. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F17470210903024784">10.1080/17470210903024784</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19591080">19591080</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:7741180">7741180</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://psych.princeton.edu/psychology/research/johnson_laird/pdfs/2009%20Understanding%20cumulative%20risk.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 18 May 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 August</span> 2013</span>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFJohnson-Laird1994" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="Philip_Johnson-Laird" title="Philip Johnson-Laird">Johnson-Laird, Philip N.</a> (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mentalmodels.princeton.edu/papers/1994probabilistic.pdf">"Mental Models and Probabilistic Thinking"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Cognition</i>. <b>50</b> (<span class="nowrap">1–</span>3): <span class="nowrap">189–</span>209. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0010-0277%2894%2990028-0">10.1016/0010-0277(94)90028-0</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8039361">8039361</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:9439284">9439284</a>.</cite>,</li></ul></li>

<li><b>analogical:</b>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFBurns1996" class="citation journal cs1">Burns, B. D. (1996). "Meta-Analogical Transfer: Transfer Between Episodes of Analogical Reasoning". <i>Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition</i>. <b>22</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">1032–</span>1048. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0278-7393.22.4.1032">10.1037/0278-7393.22.4.1032</a>.</cite></li></ul></li>

<li><b>spatial:</b>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFJahnKnauffJohnson-Laird2007" class="citation journal cs1">Jahn, Georg; Knauff, Markus; <a href="Philip_Johnson-Laird" title="Philip Johnson-Laird">Johnson-Laird, P. N.</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mentalmodels.princeton.edu/papers/2007preferredmodels.pdf">"Preferred mental models in reasoning about spatial relations"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Memory & Cognition</i>. <b>35</b> (8): <span class="nowrap">2075–</span>2087. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3758%2Fbf03192939">10.3758/bf03192939</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18265622">18265622</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:25356700">25356700</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFKnauffJohnson-Laird2002" class="citation journal cs1">Knauff, Markus; <a href="Philip_Johnson-Laird" title="Philip Johnson-Laird">Johnson-Laird, P. N.</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mentalmodels.princeton.edu/papers/2002imagery.pdf">"Visual imagery can impede reasoning"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Memory & Cognition</i>. <b>30</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">363–</span>371. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3758%2Fbf03194937">10.3758/bf03194937</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12061757">12061757</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:7330724">7330724</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWaltzKnowltonHolyoakBoone1999" class="citation journal cs1">Waltz, James A.; Knowlton, Barbara J.; Holyoak, Keith J.; Boone, Kyle B.; Mishkin, Fred S.; de Menezes Santos, Marcia; Thomas, Carmen R.; Miller, Bruce L. (March 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228906574">"A System for Relational Reasoning in Human Prefrontal Cortex"</a>. <i>Psychological Science</i>. <b>10</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">119–</span>125. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1467-9280.00118">10.1111/1467-9280.00118</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:44019775">44019775</a>.</cite></li></ul></li>

<li><b>moral:</b>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFBucciarelliKhemlaniJohnson-Laird2008" class="citation journal cs1">Bucciarelli, Monica; Khemlani, Sangeet; <a href="Philip_Johnson-Laird" title="Philip Johnson-Laird">Johnson-Laird, P. N.</a> (February 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journal.sjdm.org/jdm8105.pdf">"The Psychology of Moral Reasoning"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Judgment and Decision Making</i>. <b>3</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">121–</span>139. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1930297500001479">10.1017/S1930297500001479</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:327124">327124</a>.</cite></li></ul></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/inference" class="extiw external" title="wiktionary:inference">inference</a></b></i> or <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/infer" class="extiw external" title="wiktionary:infer">infer</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div>

</div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/browse/inference">Inference</a> at <a href="PhilPapers" title="PhilPapers">PhilPapers</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://philosophyterms.com/inference/">Inference example and definition</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.inphoproject.org/taxonomy/2397">Inference</a> at the <a href="Indiana_Philosophy_Ontology_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project">Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project</a></li></ul>

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</style><div id="Logic605" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><a href="History_of_logic" title="History of logic">History</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Logic_in_computer_science" title="Logic in computer science">Computer science</a></li>

<li><a href="Formal_semantics_(natural_language)" title="Formal semantics (natural language)">Formal semantics (natural language)</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_logic" title="Philosophy of logic">Philosophy of logic</a></li>

<li><a href="Formal_proof" title="Formal proof">Proof</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantics_of_logic" title="Semantics of logic">Semantics of logic</a></li>

<li><a href="Syntax_(logic)" title="Syntax (logic)">Syntax</a></li></ul>

</div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Logics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Classical_logic" title="Classical logic">Classical</a></li>

<li><a href="Informal_logic" title="Informal logic">Informal</a>

<ul><li><a href="Critical_thinking" title="Critical thinking">Critical thinking</a></li>

<li><a href="Reason" title="Reason">Reason</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Mathematical_logic" title="Mathematical logic">Mathematical</a></li>

<li><a href="Non-classical_logic" title="Non-classical logic">Non-classical</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophical_logic" title="Philosophical logic">Philosophical</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Argumentation_theory" title="Argumentation theory">Argumentation</a></li>

<li><a href="Metalogic" title="Metalogic">Metalogic</a></li>

<li><a href="Metamathematics" title="Metamathematics">Metamathematics</a></li>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Foundations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Abductive_reasoning" title="Abductive reasoning">Abduction</a></li>

<li><a href="Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic and synthetic propositions</a></li>

<li><a href="Antecedent_(logic)" title="Antecedent (logic)">Antecedent</a></li>

<li><a href="Consequent" title="Consequent">Consequent</a></li>

<li><a href="Contradiction" title="Contradiction">Contradiction</a>

<ul><li><a href="Paradox" title="Paradox">Paradox</a></li>

<li><a href="Antinomy" title="Antinomy">Antinomy</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Deductive_reasoning" title="Deductive reasoning">Deduction</a></li>

<li><a href="Deductive_closure" title="Deductive closure">Deductive closure</a></li>

<li><a href="Definition" title="Definition">Definition</a></li>

<li><a href="Description" title="Description">Description</a></li>

<li><a href="Dichotomy" title="Dichotomy">Dichotomy</a></li>

<li><a href="Logical_consequence" title="Logical consequence">Entailment</a>

<ul><li><a href="Linguistic_entailment" title="Linguistic entailment">Linguistic</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Induction</a></li>

<li><a href="Logical_truth" title="Logical truth">Logical truth</a></li>

<li><a href="Necessity_and_sufficiency" title="Necessity and sufficiency">Necessity and sufficiency</a></li>

<li><a href="Premise" title="Premise">Premise</a></li>

<li><a href="Probability" title="Probability">Probability</a></li>

<li><a href="Proposition" title="Proposition">Proposition</a></li>

<li><a href="Reference" title="Reference">Reference</a></li>

<li><a href="Statement_(logic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Statement (logic)">Statement</a></li>

<li><a href="Substitution_(logic)" title="Substitution (logic)">Substitution</a></li>

<li><a href="Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li>

<li><a href="Validity_(logic)" title="Validity (logic)">Validity</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Index_of_logic_articles" class="mw-redirect" title="Index of logic articles">Topics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="List_of_mathematical_logic_topics" title="List of mathematical logic topics">Mathematical logic</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_Boolean_algebra_topics" title="List of Boolean algebra topics">Boolean algebra</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_set_theory_topics" title="List of set theory topics">Set theory</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="List_of_logicians" title="List of logicians">Logicians</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_rules_of_inference" title="List of rules of inference">Rules of inference</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_paradoxes" title="List of paradoxes">Paradoxes</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_fallacies" title="List of fallacies">Fallacies</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_logic_symbols" title="List of logic symbols">Logic symbols</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> Category</li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"></span></span> <a href="Outline_of_logic" title="Outline of logic">Outline</a></li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"></span> <a href="Portal%3APhilosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Portal</a></li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"></span></span> WikiProject</li>

<li><a class="external text external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Recentchangeslinked&target=Template:Logic&hidebots=0">changes</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy269" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Philosophy269" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Branches269" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Branches</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="Outline_of_philosophy#Branches" title="Outline of philosophy">Branches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Applied_philosophy" title="Applied philosophy">Applied philosophy</a></li>

<li><a href="Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li>

<li><a href="Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Metaphilosophy</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Philosophy of education</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Philosophy of information</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">Philosophy of mathematics</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy of religion</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li>

<li><a href="Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li>

<li><a href="Practical_philosophy" title="Practical philosophy">Practical philosophy</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></li>

<li><a href="Theoretical_philosophy" title="Theoretical philosophy">Theoretical philosophy</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Aesthetic response</a></li>

<li><a href="Formalism_(art)" title="Formalism (art)">Formalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Institutional_theory_of_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutional theory of art">Institutionalism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li>

<li><a href="Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li>

<li><a href="Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Epistemological_particularism" title="Epistemological particularism">Particularism</a></li>

<li><a href="Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li>

<li><a href="Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li>

<li><a href="Deontology" title="Deontology">Deontology</a></li>

<li><a href="Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Compatibilism" title="Compatibilism">Compatibilism</a></li>

<li><a href="Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a>

<li><a href="Incompatibilism" title="Incompatibilism">Incompatibilism</a>

<li><a href="Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li>

<li><a href="Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li>

<li><a href="Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li>

<li><a href="Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li>

<li><a href="Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li>

<li><a href="Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminativism</a></li>

<li><a href="Emergentism" title="Emergentism">Emergentism</a></li>

<li><a href="Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Normativity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li>

<li><a href="Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li>

<li><a href="Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li>

<li><a href="Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li>

<li><a href="Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li>

<li><a href="Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li>

<li><a href="Event_(philosophy)" title="Event (philosophy)">Event</a></li>

<li><a href="Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li>

<li><a href="Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a></li>

<li><a href="Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li>

<li><a href="Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li>

<li><a href="Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_era269" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By era</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">By era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></li>

<li><a href="Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a>

<ul><li><a href="Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li>

<li><a href="Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li>

<li><a href="Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></li>

<li><a href="Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li>

<li><a href="Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li>

<li><a href="School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a></li>

<li><a href="Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li>

<li><a href="School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Chinese naturalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li>

<li><a href="Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greco-</a><a href="Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Roman</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Presocratic</a>

<ul><li><a href="Ionian_School_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionians</a></li>

<li><a href="Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreans</a></li>

<li><a href="Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></li>

<li><a href="Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomists</a></li>

<li><a href="Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophists</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li>

<li><a href="Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li>

<li><a href="Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a></li>

<li><a href="Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a></li>

<li><a href="Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Academy</a></li>

<li><a href="Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic school</a></li>

<li><a href="Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a>

<ul><li><a href="Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li>

<li><a href="Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li>

<li><a href="Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li>

<li><a href="Academic_Skepticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic Skepticism">Academic Skepticism</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism">Middle Platonism</a></li>

<li><a href="School_of_the_Sextii" title="School of the Sextii">School of the Sextii</a></li>

<li><a href="Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li>

<li><a href="Second_Sophistic" title="Second Sophistic">Second Sophistic</a></li>

<li><a href="Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li>

<li><a href="Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a></li>

<li><a href="Dispositio" title="Dispositio">Dispositio</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a>

<ul><li><a href="Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></li>

<li><a href="Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a></li>

<li><a href="Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li>

<li><a href="M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></li>

<li><a href="%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</a></li>

<li><a href="Aj%C3%B1ana" title="Ajñana">Ajñana</a></li>

<li><a href="Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Cārvāka</a></li></ul></li>

<ul><li><a href="Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">Anekantavada</a></li>

<li><a href="Sy%C4%81dv%C4%81da" class="mw-redirect" title="Syādvāda">Syādvāda</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a>

<ul><li><a href="Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></li>

<li><a href="Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivadā</a></li>

<li><a href="Pudgalavada" title="Pudgalavada">Pudgalavada</a></li>

<li><a href="Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrāntika</a></li>

<li><a href="Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li>

<li><a href="Svatantrika%E2%80%93Prasa%E1%B9%85gika_distinction" title="Svatantrika–Prasaṅgika distinction">Svatantrika and Prasangika</a></li>

<li><a href="%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li>

<li><a href="Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogacara</a></li>

<li><a href="Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Mazdakism" title="Mazdakism">Mazdakism</a></li>

<li><a href="Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li>

<li><a href="Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">East Asian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Neotaoism</a></li>

<li><a href="Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li>

<li><a href="Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a></li>

<li><a href="Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li>

<li><a href="Augustinianism" title="Augustinianism">Augustinianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li>

<li><a href="Scotism" title="Scotism">Scotism</a></li>

<li><a href="Occamism" title="Occamism">Occamism</a></li>

<li><a href="Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a>

<ul><li><a href="Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Acintya bheda abheda</a></li>

<li><a href="Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></li>

<li><a href="Bhedabheda" title="Bhedabheda">Bhedabheda</a></li>

<li><a href="Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a></li>

<li><a href="Nimbarka_Sampradaya" title="Nimbarka Sampradaya">Nimbarka Sampradaya</a></li>

<li><a href="Shuddhadvaita" title="Shuddhadvaita">Shuddhadvaita</a></li>

<li><a href="Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya">Navya-Nyāya</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li>

<li><a href="Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a></li>

<li><a href="Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Illuminationism</a></li>

<li><i><a href="Kalam" title="Kalam">ʿIlm al-Kalām</a></i></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li>

<li><a href="Classical_Realism" title="Classical Realism">Classical Realism</a></li>

<li><a href="Collectivism_and_individualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivism and individualism">Collectivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li>

<li><a href="Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li>

<li><a href="Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li>

<li><a href="Edo_neo-Confucianism" title="Edo neo-Confucianism">Edo neo-Confucianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li>

<li><a href="Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li>

<li><a href="Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li>

<li><a href="Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li>

<li><a href="Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a>

<li><a href="Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a>

<ul><li><a href="Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute</a></li>

<li><a href="British_idealism" title="British idealism">British</a></li>

<li><a href="German_idealism" title="German idealism">German</a></li>

<li><a href="Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective</a></li>

<li><a href="Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective</a></li>

<li><a href="Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li>

<li><a href="Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></li>

<li><a href="Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li>

<li><a href="Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li>

<li><a href="Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li>

<li><a href="Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li>

<li><a href="Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li>

<li><a href="New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Neo-scholasticism" title="Neo-scholasticism">Neo-scholasticism</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophical_pessimism" title="Philosophical pessimism">Pessimism</a></li>

<li><a href="Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li>

<li><a href="Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li>

<li><a href="Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li>

<li><a href="Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li>

<li><a href="Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li>

<li><a href="Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaardianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Krausism" title="Krausism">Krausism</a></li>

<li><a href="Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li>

<li><a href="Newtonianism" title="Newtonianism">Newtonianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzscheanism</a></li>

<li><a href="Spinozism" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></li>

<li><a href="Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytic feminism</a></li>

<li><a href="Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a></li>

<li><a href="Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li>

<li><a href="Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">Experimental philosophy</a></li>

<li><a href="Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsificationism</a></li>

<li><a href="Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a> / <a href="Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li>

<li><a href="Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Meta-ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li>

<li><a href="Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</a></li>

<li><a href="Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Quinean naturalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li>

<li><a href="Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></li>

<li><a href="Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">Postanalytic philosophy</a></li>

<li><a href="Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawlsian</a></li>

<li><a href="Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li>

<li><a href="Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li>

<li><a href="Transactionalism" title="Transactionalism">Transactionalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Utilitarianism#Developments_in_the_20th_century" title="Utilitarianism">Contemporary utilitarianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li>

<li><a href="Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgensteinian</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li>

<li><a href="Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li>

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<ul><li><a href="Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto School">Kyoto School</a></li>

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